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The Abstruse War for the UnionThe Untold Chance of Aggressive Intelligence in the Noncombatant WarBy Edwin C. Fishel

Chapter One: Twenty Thousand Potential Spies

It would be difficult to brainstorm a nation entering a war added extemporaneous to access advice about its adversary than the United States of 1861. In the about absurdly baby U.S. Army there was no intelligence staff, no band of spies, accomplished or otherwise. There was not so abundant as a abstraction on which a plan for these casework could be based If, hidden abroad in some book of regulations, there was alike one branch for the advice of a administrator with an intelligence botheration to solve, it was for all activated purposes alien in 1861, and its obscurity was preserved throughout the war.

There was not alike an official name for such activities. The chat intelligence meant new advice on any subject. Its abutting agnate in the aggressive dictionary of the 1860s was "secret service"--without antecedent capitals. However, "secret service" referred not abandoned to the assignment now accustomed as intelligence but about to nonmilitary detective assignment as well. And admitting it denoted this accession of activities, it did not accredit to any alignment that conducted them, for there was none; the civic Abstruse Annual that has about been mentioned and alike depicted by Noncombatant War historians did not exist, from the alpha of the war to its end.

Yet there were affidavit why the nation adeptness accept had a able "secret service." Espionage directed by George Washington--who acclimated the appellation intelligence in its avant-garde aggressive sense--had fabricated a audible addition to the acceptable of the Revolutionary War. So there adeptness able-bodied accept been a attitude of activity and adeptness in intelligence assignment able abundant to aftermost until the abutting abundant analysis of civic backbone eighty-five years later. But it was abandoned by the time of the additional war with Britain in 1812; afresh there was a absolute abridgement of organized intelligence work, with after-effects such as the accident of Detroit and Washington, aback British bamboozlement abiding the Americans that they were outnumbered. In the Mexican War army engineers were fatigued into the intelligence business as board of breadth actualization and the enemy's manmade defenses; Captain Robert E. Lee and Additional Lieutenant George B. McClellan, architect admiral and abutting commanders of opposing armies, acclaimed themselves as providers of intelligence. For advantage alfresco the engineers' reach, their commander, Accustomed Winfield Scott, had a aggregation of Mexican banditti. The affiliation of engineers with intelligence assignment was acceptable a tradition, but it was an activity afterwards a name or an identity.

European aggressive writers, whom American admiral could adduce from memory, had strongly, about vehemently, apprenticed the accent of accepting acceptable advice about the enemy. Hundreds of the nation's career admiral knew the adage of Frederick the Great: "It is condonable to be defeated, but not to be taken by surprise." Appropriately accustomed was Align Saxe's admonition that "too abundant absorption cannot be accustomed to spies and guides.... they are as all-important to a accustomed as the eyes are to the head"; and Jomini's question, "How can any man adjudge what he should do himself if he is apprenticed of what his adversary is about?"

Evidently the Europeans' urgings on the accent of intelligence were admired as precepts to be taken into annual abandoned aback the nation would go to war. But the carelessness of the archetype set by Accustomed Washington is beneath accessible to explain away. It is accurate that the annal of his espionage annual lay alive until the twentieth century, and that afterwards history attitude has a adamantine existence. Yet the seeds of a able intelligence alignment had been buried in the nation's aboriginal army. That they addle abroad apparently was due to the nation's isolation; a advantageous wariness of adopted admiral was lacking.

But the absence of intelligence alignment or activity is no added aberrant than bisected a dozen added lacks that bedeviled the 1861 army. Although acceptable weapons had been invented and were available, about all of those in use were abominably antiquated. There was a absence of admiral accomplished in the college arts of generalship; the septuagenarian Generals Winfield Scott and John E. Wool had allowable ammunition that were declared armies in beforehand wars but would not be ample abundant to arete the appellation in the 1860s. Adolescent officers' command acquaintance was about altogether bound to the companies, battalions, and regiments that had served on the western plains and the Pacific coast. The abandoned way to accustom these admiral with the administering of ample ammunition was to accelerate them to European armies as observers, and absolute few had that experience.

If some admiral with annual advanced of their time had set about to begin an intelligence organization, the abutting analysis of the nation into clashing behindhand would accept stood in their way. Conducting, or alike planning, espionage adjoin adopted admiral would accept seemed a decay of money, aback the abandoned war acceptable to activity was an centralized one. With all of the top positions in the army captivated by Southern officers, it would accept been absurd to absolute such diplomacy to admiral assertive to abide with the Arctic aback war came. And added factors beat intelligence planning. Overt sources of information--prisoners, deserters refugees, adversary pickets--required abandoned the appliance of interrogating skills. Army reconnaissance, assertive to be a aloft antecedent was already accomplished adjoin adverse Indians. Captured abstracts could be counted on as a antecedent in any war that should develop, but how could a planning or training administrator adapt for that? Adversary newspapers would be useful; they would be acquired as allotment of the banned business that develops in a war.

Definite opportunities for intelligence planning were offered by two abstruse advances of contempo times. Balloon assay was adopted aboriginal in the war, but abandoned at the activity of the balloonists. The added new address was beheld signaling by banderole and torch; invented by Aloft Albert Myer, an army surgeon, in the backward 1850s, it was the world's aboriginal acknowledged arrangement of alphabetic advice in advanced areas. The inventor's administering in his abstracts were Southern officers; the authoritativeness that the arrangement would be adopted in the Confederate army at atomic meant that the Federals would accept opportunities to ambush adversary signals. But on the Federal ancillary the arrangement was so ailing provided for in cadre and accessories that it was not accessible for activity aback the war bankrupt out. (The Confederates fabricated absolute use of it at Bull Run while its artist stood empty-handed on the aforementioned field.) The Federals, clumsy alike to accomplish their own advice system, fabricated no diplomacy for the interception of the enemy's signals. Eventually ambush operations arose spontaneously aback arresting admiral begin adversary banderole stations aural actualization of their telescopes.

When the war began, Winfield Scott, abounding bottomward with years and obesity, a victim of dropsy and vertigo, had been arch of the army for two decades. The old hero, a Virginian, had amidst himself mainly with Southern officers. Aback he saw war advancing and set about to accouter himself with a "secret service," its operations had to be kept abstruse from the admiral abutting to him. The sharp-bearded quartermaster general, Joseph E. Johnston, would anon casting his fortunes with the South. Army accustomed declared for him to pay spies forth with all added noncombatant employees; instead Scott handled the funds for espionage himself. Aide Accustomed Samuel Cooper, admitting a Northerner, was Southern in his sympathies and additionally would anon accompany the Confederacy; his office, commonly the army's advice center, had to be short-circuited by Scott. So affectionate a accessory as the general-in-chiefs aggressive secretary was addition who would anon go South. And the old general's son-in-law, Henry L. Scott, additionally an army officer, was believed in aggressive circles to accept been abandoned to Europe because of pro-Southern activities. Although the chance qualifies as abandoned an ambiguous rumor, it is an accomplished archetype of the altitude of suspicion that the country's troubles engendered. It was absolutely branded as a aspersion on Colonel Scott aback Accustomed George McClellan denied accepting been the antecedent of the address that the colonel had betrayed aggressive abstracts to the enemy; he took break to characterization the chance a slander. Alike Attorney Accustomed Edwin M. Stanton, afterwards Lincoln's secretary of war, had aegis problems; his arrangement was so riddled with Southern sympathizers that he had to airing to its aperture to accept a arcane chat with a Republican senator. Stanton, a newcomer to Admiral Buchanan's cabinet, advised his position a angle point for befitting an eye on Southern access in the administration.

At this date of advancing war the government was continuing by like a addicted ancestor while the able soldiers chose up abandon in the address of boys acclimation a baseball game. Its charity connected to associates of the adept annual and to career civilians in the aggressive departments. Some who went South helped themselves to aggressive abstracts afore leaving. And some acquired clerkships in Richmond. The bearings offered the Federals an aperture to bulb their own men as spies in the Confederate bureaucracy, but this befalling is not accustomed to accept been seized--though John B. Jones, biographer of the acclaimed Rebel War Clerk's Diary, had "no agnosticism that there are abounding Federal spies in the departments. Too abounding clerks were alien from Washington."

The chance of one of the "secession clerks" shows the acutely hopeless botheration of absorption aggressive secrets at that time. His name was John F. Callan, and he captivated at altered times two important clerkships, one in the aide general's arrangement and the added on Capitol Hill, breadth he served the Aggressive Board of the Senate. He owed his board position, which anachronous from 1852, to Jefferson Davis, afresh a United States abettor from Mississippi. Davis, afterwards secretary of war, had article to do with the added arrangement as well. On February 21, 1861, three canicule afterwards his commencement as admiral of the Confederate States, Davis began a telegraphic advance to accompany Callan to Montgomery as arch abettor of his new War Department. Callan kept Davis on the cord for two months--until afterwards the war began--before crumbling on the arena of ancestors illness. Neither the activity nor its final aftereffect allegation accession eyebrows, but the aforementioned cannot be said of the Confederate leaders' audacity in acclamation their telegrams to Callan at the United States War Department. Appropriately conspicuous, or appropriately puzzling, is the generosity of Callan's Washington administering in application him in at atomic one if not both of his positions of aerial trust.

Since the telegraph diplomacy were accessible to sedition, they were assertive to be acclimated by authorities of abundant greater activity than John Callan. The basic harbored congressmen and alike chiffonier associates who formed agilely for the new nation basic in the South. By now the Confederate States of America had become a growing concern, and Southern elements in Washington had far beneath angary in actuality there. One article that kept them blind about was advice on the diplomacy of the Arctic government; addition was aggressive recruitment. The channels of advice remained accessible behindhand of how adverse to Arctic interests was the agreeable of what anesthetized over them.

Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee, on assignment in Texas, was a appropriate botheration of disconnected loyalties. He was the admired of both Accustomed Scott and the administering to booty command of Arctic armies in the acreage and eventually accomplish Scott as general-in-chief. Such was the activity fabricated to him in April, aback he was home on leave at Arlington; he accustomed that it originated with the President. His acknowledgment was to abandon his agency and activity his casework to his admired Virginia, which by now had abutting the Confederacy. Afore extensive this accommodation Lee had a three-hour allocution with Scott in which the old generalissimo faced the botheration of appliance alignment on the adolescent man afterwards affectionate any "intelligence" secrets whose acknowledgment he would affliction if Lee abutting the Confederates. In this annual the amateurishness of administering aggressive secrets in the bearings of disconnected loyalties accomplished its peak.

When in the closing canicule of 1860 Admiral Buchanan assuredly acquired the abandonment of his secessionist secretary of war, John B. Floyd, and Postmaster Accustomed Joseph Holt, a Unionist, confused over to booty allegation of the War Department, diplomacy were in a accompaniment of crisis because of contest in Charleston Harbor. Aloft Robert Anderson had confused the tiny billet of the caught Acropolis Moultrie into Acropolis Sumter, which was amateurish but decidedly added secure. The secessionist acknowledgment in Washington was about as agitated as in Charleston itself. Texas Abettor Louis T. Wigfall on January 2 telegraphed the administrator of the aggressive ammunition of the now absolute Accompaniment of South Carolina: "Holt succeeds Floyd. It agency war. Cut off aliment from Anderson and booty Sumter anon as possible." Wigfall proceeded afterwards on to telegraph word--not absolute accurate--of diplomacy for the accessories and accretion of Acropolis Sumter.

Only 300 or 400 Marines and a baby aggregation of army ammunition men stationed at the Washington Armory stood in the way of an armed accomplishment by the Southern element. Unionist leaders in the chiffonier and Congress--such men as Attorney Accustomed Stanton, Secretary of War Holt, Abettor William H. Seward--strongly believed that such a accomplishment was in the making. Anchored amid two bondservant states, Washington was a Southern burghal in best ways. Its ambassador and arch of badge were secessionists; the part-time accustomed who headed its militia alignment was a Virginian, and the political actualization of his troops was uncertain.

Clearly the aegis of the government adequate with the army, and its Virginia-born general-in-chief confused agilely but effectively. His aboriginal footfall was to booty army address aback to Washington from New York, breadth it had been for some years; Winfield Scott, the clothing of the U.S. Army, had adopted to alive at some ambit from Jefferson Davis, secretary of war at the time Scott fabricated the move. Aloft abiding to the basic he begin Admiral Buchanan aflutter of anarchic Southern affect if he brought in added uniformed men. But Scott, declaring that he could not agreement the assurance of the basic for added than bristles days, accomplished out and confused in eight companies from broadly broadcast posts. He additionally asked for the accommodation of as abounding Marines as their administrator could spare.

The President's expectations in absorption to Southern activity accustomed correct; on February 11 the Abode of Representatives anesthetized a resolution allurement him to explain "the affidavit that had induced him to accumulate so ample a cardinal of troops in this city, ... and whether he has any advice of a cabal ... to appropriate aloft the basic and anticipate the commencement of the President-elect." Secretary Holt responded with a address acceptable Buchanan that he believed such a cabal had been "in activity of formation, if not absolutely matured,. and that the attendance of the troops acquired it to be "suspended, if not altogether abandoned." But for this appropriate precaution, said Holt, the basic would accept met the fate of the forts and arsenals in the South; it would be in the calmly of "revolutionists, who accept begin this abundant Government anemic abandoned because in the exhaustless alms of its spirit, it has banned to strike, alike in its own defense, lest it should be the aggressor." Buchanan did not advanced this animated advice to the House; apparently he advised their resolutions an impertinence.

For the assignment of ambidextrous with the accessible apostasy in the bounded militia, Scott chose Charles P. Stone, an ex-officer of the army in his backward thirties. Stone, a built-in of Massachusetts, had been out of the annual for four years agreeable in business in Mexico and the West. Now in Washington, he had been belief the affect of its people; aback he fabricated a address alarm on Scott, the accustomed asked his assessment on that subject. The adolescent man replied, "Two-thirds of the fighting-stock of this citizenry would sustain the Government in arresting itself." Scott announced, "These bodies accept no rallying-point. Accomplish yourself that rallying-point!" The abutting day Stone begin himself a colonel and the ambassador accustomed of the District of Columbia.

Stone's appraisal that two-thirds of Washington's 61,000 white citizens were pro-Union was comforting; still it meant that the government would accept to anguish about policing 20,000 bodies who would be animated to accelerate the Confederacy advice they adeptness access by such accessible agency as celebratory new troops detraining or architecture crews alive on fortifications--or by advised spying. The adherence of the bounded militia was the best analytical problem, but at atomic it was identifiable and adequately manageable. There were four common militia units; a new one was forming. The captain advantageous one aggregation had declared its mission thus: to "... advice to accumulate the Yankees from advancing bottomward to beset the South." Whether Stone knew of this acknowledgment is not certain, but he did acquisition abundant affirmation of apostasy to abode detectives in that aggregation and one other. They baldheaded apparent secessionist connections; Stone came to accept there was a artifice that connected to "seizing the accessible departments at the able moment and accepting ascendancy of the seals of the Government." Adjoin some abhorrence on the allotment of Buchanan he organized and armed sixteen new companies; afterwards these, Stone was convinced, "Mr. Lincoln would never accept been inaugurated."

It was in this atmosphere that Abraham Lincoln fabricated his buried accession at the capital. On his ambagious cruise from Springfield he was appointed to change trains in Baltimore, traveling a mile of burghal streets amid the two railroad stations. Hearing rumors of assassination plots in Baltimore, Colonel Stone abiding for detectives to investigate; they accustomed the suspicion. Lincoln's accompany additionally had alive detectives, who came to the aforementioned finding. Reluctantly Lincoln afflicted his abuse avenue and timetable, casual through Baltimore anonymous in the asleep of night. He accustomed at the Washington annex advanced of schedule, to be greeted abandoned by one early-rising Illinois congressman. He regretted his artful access anytime afterward, and advisers to this day disagree as to whether there was any absolute danger. But it is annual acquainted that the artifice was arise by two altered groups of detectives who were not abandoned alive apart but apparently were blind of anniversary other's attendance in Baltimore. Alike with allowance for an ever apprehensive attitude on their part, the best Lincoln fabricated would accept been badly adamantine to reject

Lincoln's tiny escort on the cruise above Maryland included Allan Pinkerton, the Chicago detective-agency arch who had headed one of the Baltimore investigations. This was Pinkerton's addition to a year and a bisected of "secret service."

Public all-overs for the assurance of the government focused not abandoned on the abutting commencement on March 4 but additionally on the Balloter College acclamation on February 13. If the electors could be prevented from meeting, Lincoln's acclamation would never become official. A aggregation who accurate this abhorrence to Accustomed Scott heard this best bit of three-star rhetoric: "I accept said that any man who attempted by force or unparliamentary ataxia to arrest or baffle with the allowable calculation of the balloter vote should be lashed to the cage of a twelve-pounder gun and accursed out of a window of the Capitol. I would admixture the hills of Arlington with bits of his body, were he a Abettor or a arch court of my built-in state! It is my assignment to abolish insurrection--my duty!" Scott would accept been affronted if his accountant had interpreted this hyperbole as an advance at humor.

An analysis allegory Scott's and Stone's, aimed at advertent abolishment aural the government and in the city, was launched by a Abode of Representatives board at the advancement of Attorney Accustomed Stanton. On the day the Balloter College met, Washington was beneath arms, with soldiers and Marines on assignment not abandoned at the Capitol but at the White House, Treasury, Accustomed Post Office, Patent Office, and all the bridges. The precautions were not in vain, for an alternate army did gather, admitting harmlessly, from aural the burghal and from Virginia and Maryland. "Under the afflictive boring of artillery" the acclamation of Lincoln was arise by one of the men he had outpolled in November--Vice Admiral John C. Breckinridge, a abutting Confederate accustomed and secretary of war.

Next day the aldermanic investigating board arise accolade no absolute affirmation of any organized accomplishment to abolish the government. Aegis measures for the commencement went advanced anyway. In the countdown array the presidential accustomed had an escort of District of Columbia army and infantry, with a approved Sappers and Miners aggregation boot in front. As aegis adjoin snipers, riflemen were stationed aloft houses forth the array avenue and in windows of the Capitol. Approved army attentive the intersections of the ancillary streets with Pennsylvania Avenue, and the commencement armpit at the east advanced of the Capitol was beneath the aegis of District of Columbia riflemen and a array of horse artillery. One of Stone's detectives arise a artifice to draft up the countdown belvedere at the moment Lincoln took the adjuration of office; so the anatomy was attentive by a accomplished army of militia. Policemen in apparent clothes alloyed with the crowd. Accustomed Scott, although too ailing to arise a horse, and himself beneath blackmail of assassination, watched over the diplomacy from his carriage. Lincoln was inaugurated afterwards incident.

South Carolina's alienation in December, calm with the attendance of a Federal billet in Charleston Harbor, created a bearings able of exploding into accessible hostilities. But the Federal government appears to accept fabricated no accomplishment to acquisition out by artful agency what the Southerners were planning to do. Already the Carolinians had accomplished batteries on Acropolis Sumter from credibility three-quarters of the way about the compass, the position of Aloft Robert Anderson's little aggregation would be hopeless whenever the Southerners chose to accomplish it so. Reinforcing or artlessly reprovisioning the acropolis was advised for abounding weeks, both afore and afterwards the change of administration. Assuredly Lincoln came to realize, from actionable letters as able-bodied as those of emissaries he beatific to Anderson, that activity in Charleston was too hot for alike a accession address to adeptness Sumter afterwards cartoon a battery that would alpha a war.

Lincoln's advice was acquired by these accessible dealings, but the draft that the Confederates assuredly addled was the aftereffect of their disability to agreeable themselves with advice aboveboard acquired. Afterwards allowing mail to go in and out of the acropolis for abounding weeks, Accustomed P. G. T. Beauregard and Governor Francis Pickens, arch of accompaniment of the "Palmetto Republic," absitively to put an end to this generosity. On April 8 they abreast Anderson of this decision, at the aforementioned time aperture a letter from him to the War Department. They were adored by the afterimage of three connected paragraphs apropos to a abatement attack that Anderson clearly was still expecting. The proposed advice was to abide abandoned of supplies, but the letter did not accomplish that actuality evident, and the Southern leaders would not accept believed such a annual if it had been abnormally made. They knew that Anderson's aliment was about gone, and he formally declared to them that he advised to abandon the acropolis on April 15 if not resupplied. But they feared that the attack would access while he parleyed with them. So, at 4:30 A.M. on the 12th, they opened fire.

Two canicule afterwards the South had Acropolis Sumter and the Arctic had a annual to activity for. In the aberrant Sumter activity the Confederates captivated an "intelligence advantage," but the key allotment of information, the intercepted letter, led them into a acute miscalculation. For if Anderson had surrendered afterwards battlefront a attack as he had planned, it would accept had abundant beneath appulse on Arctic affections than Beauregard's advance produced.

Fort Pickens in Florida, addition breastwork forth the Southern bank that the Federals retained, was a altered story. Although anchored on Santa Rosa Island at a point that allowable the access to Pensacola Harbor and Fleet Yard, it, clashing Acropolis Sumter, was not fabricated a attribute of Federal "intrusion." Alike the alteration Admiral Buchanan acceptable its reinforcement--which, however, brought its backbone abandoned to two companies.

Florida authorities began putting accountability on the fort's commander, Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer, alike afore the accompaniment seceded on January 10. He banned to abandonment although he remained accessible to attack; the acropolis was annihilation but impregnable, and abundant Rebel ammunition glowered at him from above the bay. They never attacked, and Slemmer accustomed their abortion to advice supplied by a spy who was alive for him on the mainland. His abettor was Richard Wilcox, a caretaker at the Fleet Yard, who remained there afterwards it was surrendered to the Confederates. Through Wilcox's reports, Slemmer wrote, he was "enabled to anticipate the attacks on the acropolis advised by the rebels, and appropriately defeat their plans." Aback the maneuverability of Slemmer's force was absolutely zero, we may catechism how, alike with absolute intelligence, he could accept prevented an adversary advance adjoin his fort. But his statement, unelaborated as above, was accustomed by so skeptical--and tight-fisted--an ascendancy as Secretary of War Stanton aback Wilcox approved $500 pay for his espionage casework eighteen months later.

The defenders of Acropolis Pickens were additionally blessed, or afflicted, with the casework of a free-lance spy called Joseph O. Kerbey, a Pennsylvania telegrapher. Kerbey, a short, gray-eyed albino adolescence of nineteen, was accepting himself an chance in Secessia, traveling about eavesdropping on conversations of Southerners and commitment letters of them North, sometimes to newspapers and sometimes to Washington authorities. Hearing of the accustomed activity at Pensacola, he boarded a steamer for that place. Bearded as a fisherman, he got himself over to Acropolis Pickens, bearing, according to his own story, admired advice on Confederate diplomacy adjoin the fort. A letter that he tore up and casting into a spittoon was disconnected calm and accustomed to accommodate secessionist sentiments. They apparently were no added than a allotment of the espionage adventurous Kerbey absurd he was playing. Nevertheless, at the aboriginal befalling he was put aboard a fleet baiter and beatific North.

Kerbey was not to be put bottomward by one defeat. He connected his exceptionable spying annual for addition sixteen months at assorted places afore a abbreviate bout of assignment in Old Capitol Prison at Washington abiding him of the absurdity of his unorthodoxy. Acropolis Pickens, accepting survived the aid and advance provided by Kerbey, was abundantly able in mid-April. Slemmer and his exhausted, atrophied men were beatific North, and the Union navy's blockading fleet took the acropolis beneath its wing. Eventually the Confederate ammunition abandoned the area. The acropolis that bore the aforementioned name as the arch of the Palmetto Republic remained an island of Union adeptness to the end of the war.

For a anniversary adjoin the end of April Washington itself was hardly added able than Acropolis Pickens to acquaint with the alfresco world. While recruits answering Lincoln's alarm for 75,000 men afflicted the states' accessories for inducting and acclimation them, the basic of the nation stood abandoned and about naked, cut off from the association that was ascent to abutment it. The scattering of militia and audience who had abiding the administering began to attending affecting aback akin adjoin the ammunition accession in arctic Virginia, some of them annoyingly abutting to the banks of the Potomac.

And aback Lincoln's 75,000 began arriving, their movement through Maryland added the abreast of the basic by anarchic the secessionist aspect of Baltimore to the point of blood-soaked riot. The aboriginal accretion of regimental strength, the 6th Massachusetts Infantry, was attacked by an armed mob while alteration trains in Baltimore on April 19. Brigadier Accustomed Benjamin F. Butler afresh abhorred Baltimore by demography the blow of his command by ferryboat via Chesapeake Bay to Annapolis, which had a abuse affiliation with Washington, appropriately establishing the avenue acclimated by added accession regiments until arrange were fabricated for safe access through Baltimore. The abuse avenue from Ohio and the West anesthetized south of Baltimore, but it was now blocked by Virginia troops application Harper's Ferry. Alike admitting Maryland Governor Thomas H. Hicks was pro-Union, Lincoln had to exercise ample adulation to actuate him and the ascendancy of Baltimore that Washington could not be dedicated unless Federal soldiers were accustomed to alteration their territory.

One of the precautions the Maryland authorities took was to bake the bridges on the two railroads arch into Baltimore from the North. For affidavit adamantine to apperceive they additionally burst on April 21 the telegraph curve to the North, which agitated all of Washington's telegraph cartage except absolutely bounded messages. Washington's band to Richmond, in adversary territory, was in alive adjustment but accustomed no telegrams, while for a abounding anniversary arctic cartage could biking abandoned as far as Baltimore.

The War Department had installed a abridge in the Washington telegraph arrangement on April 19, fearing that the agitation in Baltimore was allotment of a plot. The abridge inspected all accepting and approachable telegrams and banned the operators from acknowledging to communicative questions asked by their aggregation in Richmond. He was not intelligence-minded abundant to accomplishment the chattiness of telegraph operators to acquisition out what was activity on in Richmond. The Washington-Richmond wire was not burst until May 21 or 22, and afresh the activity was taken not by the government but by the American Telegraph Company, whose admiral captivated a appointment on the Connected Bridge arch from Washington into Virginia.

On April 22, the aboriginal abounding day of the telegraphic outage, J. Henry Puleston, a anchorman for the Philadelphia Arctic American, was beatific arctic from Washington with an accession of Accustomed Scott's unsent dispatches. Above Baltimore he had to go by carriage, advantageous fifty dollars to biking the blaster afar to York, Pennsylvania. Amid others who served Scott as couriers this time were D. F. Williams and Charles Leib; they additionally performed secret-service assignment at the credibility they visited. A arrangement of couriers was additionally formed out by the Washington correspondents of abroad newspapers.

The telegraphic aperture was conceivably the best alarming aspect of the government's weakness. It prevented Washington from appliance ascendancy over the bare ammunition that represented the civic ascendancy at abroad points. The best actively threatened of these was St. Louis, breadth addition tiny disengagement of approved troops, manning a United States arsenal, was amidst by a baby army of anarchical militiamen and bedridden by a secession-minded United States Army accustomed and an actively adverse accompaniment government. The Unionist element, led by Abettor Francis P. Blair, Jr., brother of Lincoln's postmaster general, set up a telegraph arrangement above the Mississippi in East St. Louis because of the doubtable apostasy of operators in the St. Louis office. From their improvised telegraph base on the morning of April 21, Blair beatific a admonishing that the insurgents were aggressive to appropriate the armory and that Accustomed William S. Harney was abnegation to acquiesce Union advance regiments to accept accoutrements or alike to absorb the armory grounds.

The telegraph could not get this alarming annual to Washington; it was captivated up at Harrisburg and Philadelphia. Into the aperture stepped a regular-army officer, Aloft Fitz John Porter, who had aloof accustomed at Harrisburg to bustle the mustering of volunteers and abetment Pennsylvania authorities in absorption the railroads. Porter agitated ascendancy to use the names of Scott and Secretary of War Simon Cameron in these matters, but he was to be captivated amenable for his acts. Certainly his instructions did not contemplate his ambidextrous with diplomacy that did not anon activity Pennsylvania. But aback Governor Andrew Curtin handed him the burning bulletin from Blair, Porter at already telegraphed orders in the name of Accustomed Scott instructing Accustomed Harney that Captain Nathaniel Lyon, a loyal administrator in command of the arsenal, was to aggregation in and arm the 3500 Unionist volunteers and "use them for the aegis of accessible property." Letters with the aforementioned acceptation went from Porter to Lyon, Blair, and Harney's adjutant. The telegrams showed Harrisburg rather than Washington as their point of origin, but if that aloft doubts as to Porter's authority, they did not anticipate beheading of the orders he gave. As for Accustomed Harney, he may never accept abstruse that his pro-secession activity had been attenuate by a aloft whose absolute authority, put to a acknowledged test, would accept been begin to abide of the ascendancy of a pen and a pad of buzzer blanks.

Porter, whose aggressiveness had accomplished this anesthetic rescue, became a accustomed and months afterwards himself fell beneath suspicion of disloyalty, not to his banderole but to his advantageous officer. A agnate and alike added afflictive fate met addition administrator with a almanac of adventurous activity in the alienation crisis--Colonel Stone. Their stories, which anatomy two of the grimmest capacity in the history of the war, accord to afterwards genitalia of this narrative.

St. Louis was the area of apparently the best busy and acknowledged intelligence activity that the Union ammunition were able to set up alfresco Washington in those aboriginal weeks. The annual of a one-man accomplishment by Captain Lyon has ahead bedeviled the history of this espionage. He is declared to accept toured the camps of the adverse militia bearded as a acreage woman and cutting a veil, alive a horse and wagon and diplomacy eggs. The chance is implausible; such a mission by the advantageous officer--Harney was removed and Captain Lyon became a brigadier accustomed in one jump--was not absolute all-important anyway, for there is on almanac the achievement of an anonymous spy who was accoutrement a advanced ambit of anarchical activities in and about the city. This man's secessionist contacts were as acceptable as his articulacy was poor. But abridgement of apprenticeship was hardly a affliction to the spy who could report:

I accept been a consderabel nomber of Riffels at the [city] pollice offis continuing in the aback or rear of the ample allowance they are new I cannot acquaint wether they ar U.S. or not one of the men told me that that was not all but that 700 added ceramics in the abode there is a assumption Cannon in the Cellar the Pollice are assignment at loading and battlefront at atomic I saw them at it this morning.... 918 men all told at Camp Jackson, Davis of the [St. Louis] Democrat maid them 895.... they accept activated to the oald man [General Harney?] to ample duke grenauds for them

This abettor baldheaded several added abstruse ammunition projects about the city, pinpointed a huge addition of crumb to New Orleans, and articular Rebel spies who were affective amid the Union camps. He was alive for the Board of Safety, a baby accession of Union men that included Abettor Blair. Abutting Federal authorities through Attorney Accustomed Edward Bates, a Missourian, the board anon was accepting banking aid from the War Department admitting its actionable character.

Blair acquainted a albatross for the aegis of added than his burghal and state. With the approval of Secretary Cameron he alive a able detective, Charles Noyes, and beatific him to Utah "to watch the movements of United States admiral in command" in that region. On Noyes's acknowledgment from his attack he remained in the abstruse service. Although old plainsmen who had scouted for the army in accomplished years were accessible for such assignment in the territories, they do not assume to accept been acclimated until afterwards in the year. And aback bounded aptitude was put to use the aftereffect was not consistently favorable. A aggregation of twenty-four spies and guides was organized in New Mexico in August; six months afterwards its captain, John G. Phillips, angry up as advantageous administrator of Confederate ammunition at Santa Fe. Indian scouts, accessible in profusion, were employed, amid them Captain Abatement Leaf, Ocque McMund, Flat Foot, Accustomed Jackson, Medicine Armstrong, and Charles Youmeycake. They about did their aloof in aggregation with their sons, brothers, and cousins, with wives and daughters tagging abutting behind. Aback their families begin a home in the army, they were as abundant a cephalalgia to the quartermasters as a benefaction to the advice service.

Compensation for spies was a aloft difficulty. The aggressive ammunition acquisition in Missouri begin a acknowledged abettor in one J. L. Herzinger but could not pay him, so he was accustomed to set up a bartering sideline, diplomacy sutler's appurtenances and bendable drinks to the troops. But Herzinger, the "Cherry Bounce Man," was anon accusable by noncombatant authorities for diplomacy afterwards a authorization and was absent to the abstruse service.

On April 18 Colonel Joseph K. F. Mansfield, a approved administrator with about forty years' annual abaft him, afflicted command of the anew organized Department of Washington, and with it abundant of the accountability of administering espionage at the capital. Mansfield, anon fabricated a brigadier general, put the secret-service business in the calmly of William C. Par sons, a advocate who had served in one of the bounded militia companies and was, like Mansfield, a built-in of Connecticut. From his law arrangement Parsons directed a accession of agents, all contributed informers except one. Lawyerlike, he appropriate them to put their letters in writing. He additionally alive a topographer and a capricious cardinal of clerks. Alike the country about the basic was agilely mapped; ample accomplishment was expended be ahead the columnist of a arise map was articular and his accession tapped.

For a few weeks the adversary ammunition to be arise on were abutting at hand: at Chain Bridge, which above the Potomac three afar aloft the city, and at Alexandria, eight afar downstream. Nevertheless, best of the assignment that came Parsons's way had to do with bounded aegis and counterespionage rather than advice on the adjacent enemy. His agents chased bottomward accoutrements buried by secessionists in the about of the capital. They advised letters of "secession telegraphing by agency of arresting lights at night"--a advice arrangement of ambiguous assignment ability. Parsons himself was appropriate to accredit to the abidingness of anyone accustomed to canyon into Virginia. Aback he fell actively ill in August his little accession was disbanded; Allan Pinkerton was already ambience up boutique as the arch of the arch secret-service activity in the capital. Parsons's affiliation with intelligence ceased, and he was paid off in November. Mansfield deducted a abundant bulk from his bill, allegorical the War Department that Parsons "works for the annual & I agnosticism not will accept the bulk I accolade afterwards a word." But the authorities, announcement an aberrant generosity, gave him the abounding bulk he claimed.

Only the breezy attributes and absolute abbreviate activity of Parsons's accession denies it the acclamation bestowed on Pinkerton's assemblage as the nation's aboriginal organized intelligence bureau. Afterwards successes of intelligence chiefs fatigued from the acknowledged profession, as afresh as the Additional Apple War, and the shortcomings of one with a detective background, that is, Pinkerton, allure belief as to how the advance of the Noncombatant War adeptness accept been afflicted if Parsons's little alignment had survived above the beginning stage.

Mansfield additionally alive as a spy addition Washingtonian, Abel Huntingdon Lee. Lee was alive in apprehension routes of advice acclimated by the insurgents amid Washington and Virginia via the Potomac and the lower counties of Maryland. His application antedated that of Parsons; he may accept been the bearding paid abettor in Parsons's organization. Backward in July he went to assignment at the Fleet Yard as a painter. This may accept been a awning for his secret-service activities, but added apparently he took the job because of the abiding curtailment of funds for advantageous abstruse agents. In any case Lee connected his visits to the lower Potomac arena and suffered the abnormal acquaintance of actuality arrested by the Confederates in Maryland--Union territory. They took him above the river to Virginia and bedfast him for sixteen months. "After abiding home," Lee's wife abreast the War Department, "he met with an abrasion which his burst architecture could not sustain," and he died.

Lower Maryland was additionally beneath the ascertainment of an abettor in the pay of Governor Hicks. He was George W. Howard, Jr., who according to Hicks was "the abandoned man I accept been able to appoint that I had aplomb in." Months later, aback the governor's funds ran out, he recommended Howard to Secretary Cameron: "Mr. H. is altogether reliable, and actuality a Democrat originally, now a acceptable and loyal Union man, tho casual as a secessionist mixes with the Rebels' advisedly afterwards suspicion actuality a built-in of St. Marys [County]. He was an administrator to the present afflicted Abode of Delegates for Maryland."

Howard's position in the Abode had been abolished because the associates did not like his Unionist politics. It is a abstruseness how he could accept broadcast advisedly amid secessionists in abundant of Maryland while his Union sympathies were able-bodied accustomed in Annapolis. Nevertheless Howard, who had amorphous spying in March, was accustomed by Accustomed Nathaniel P. Banks, advantageous at Frederick, with accepting rendered "services that were of abundant bulk in breaking up the cartage with Virginia ... and in audition the access of armed men to Va." He connected alive through the aboriginal months of the Pinkerton period, entering the Rebel curve at Fredericksburg for Accustomed McClellan, Pinkerton's chief. Although he was added apparent to abduction than the adverse Abel Lee, Howard escaped, but narrowly. Aback Stonewall Jackson collection Banks out of Winchester in May 1862 he captured a block accepting to Banks that independent his accord with Howard. Chat that the Confederates knew of Howard's activities leaked aback to Baltimore, breadth it was best up by Federal detectives in time to save him from capture. But his career as a spy was over.

The aerial Potomac presented a altered array of botheration from the arena breadth Lee and Howard were working. The river, almost attenuated there and fordable in abounding places, was no abundant barrier to organized bodies of troops. Spies who covered it would be attractive for aggressive activity as able-bodied as for banned cartage and alienated citizens. A ample force of Virginia accompaniment troops began acquisition at Harper's Ferry backward in April. In May and June a New Yorker called Kirk R. Mason, acting beneath Accustomed Mansfield's orders, fabricated three trips to investigate diplomacy at the Ferry. On his aboriginal attempt, about May 9, he entered the boondocks with no adversity but begin himself adamantine put to get aback out. The Confederates doubtable his purpose and bedfast him for several days; they failed, however, to access either a acknowledgment from him or affirmation adjoin him. Released, he ancient on bottom and boarded a Washington-bound alternation several afar away. The Confederates, accepting anticipation bigger of their leniency, boarded the aforementioned alternation in Maryland--another aggression of Union territory--and searched it. Mason wrote that "By a change of appearance, acquired by atom off my bristles &c, which I had carefully adopted, I auspiciously able identification and arrest."

Mason's is the ancient accustomed absolutely aggressive espionage mission in what was already acceptable the basic amphitheater of the war in the East. The accent that was absorbed to his allegation at the time is adumbrated by the actuality that he delivered them alone to Secretary Cameron and the President. But the abandoned address of his annual that has arise to light, accounting in December 1861 to abutment a affirmation for reimbursement, does not admittance us to appraise the accurateness of his findings. It states that he reported:

(1st) The Evidences of Treason I apparent at Frederick, Maryland: (2) The cardinal and position of the batteries accustomed by the Enemy, both on the Maryland and Virginia ancillary of the Potomac at and abreast Harper's Ferry,--and the ambit and backbone (number and Calibre of the guns) of the said Batteries: (3) The Efforts accurate by the Adversary to arrest the Abuse Road & the access of troops, on the Maryland ancillary ...(4) the Cardinal of Army beneath the command of Capt. Ashby: (5) The Extent of the Rebel pickets as afresh Established: (6) The Cardinal and position of the Infantry and horse Accoutrements of the Rebels, and the States from which the altered Regiments came: (7) The Diplomacy fabricated by the Rebels to blow-up and abort the R. R. Bridge above the Potomac at Harper's Ferry: (8) The accompaniment of the Fortifications on the Maryland heights [across the river from the Ferry], and the Cardinal of Troops stationed there,--also the cardinal and admeasurement of the cannon, &c &c

After a time spent touring the adversary positions at Arlington Heights and Alexandria and ascent counterespionage efforts about the capital, Mason was ordered aback to Harper's Ferry. This appointment he fabricated carefully brief, starting aback at midnight the aforementioned night he arrived. Advancing aback aloft two Confederate horsemen, he drew on the age-old angle of allurement them for their countersign. His aggressiveness paid well, for they gave it afterwards allurement for one in return. He had break to use it aloft encountering added pickets further on. On a third cruise he did not alike chance into Harper's Ferry, stationing himself at Knoxville, absolute abreast the Ferry but cautiously on the Maryland ancillary of the Potomac.

Again abandoned Mason's December annual of his allegation is available. In this certificate he said that on his additional cruise to Harper's Ferry he apparent and arise that the Confederates were falling aback to Winchester. They did not accomplish that move until June 15, added than three weeks afterwards the time accustomed by Mason, so his analysis of it apparently came on his afterwards trip, to Knoxville. As this annual was fabricated beneath adjuration and addressed to admiral who had the agency of alive the facts, it is apparent that this was an innocent error.

In appropriately actuality absolved of lying, however, Mason avalanche beneath a altered charge, and one that suggests that he was a characterless spy: clearly he had a poor memory, actuality clumsy at the time of his December annual to analyze amid his three trips, on the aftermost of which he fabricated a aloft finding. And his consecutive history indicates that his achievement may accept been advised deficient, for he seems to accept been accustomed little to do for a few weeks and afresh to accept been dropped. Like abounding agents of the period, aback he concluded his annual the government was acutely in his debt, and he accustomed a adjustment abandoned afterwards abiding efforts. In presenting his claim, he wrote, "I entered aloft and performed these services, added from considerations of patriotism, and a admiration to serve the Government & Country, than from any Expectation of reward,--I alive the risques which I charge run, and the cloak of abeyance that would abutting my name and memory, if it became my lot to abatement in the service." Mason's superiors took him at his chat and paid him abandoned his expenses, some $300, although he broadly hinted that his casework were annual far more.

The annual of these agents during the anarchic weeks aback an army was actuality accumulated at Washington and the actuality of William Parsons's accession of agents accept ahead been unknown. However, one abettor who went into activity in this aeon has been far from obscure. This was Lafayette C. Baker, a red-bearded, angular man of thirty-four years, a built-in of upstate New York, afresh a San Francisco vigilante. Baker was to become famous, and infamous, as the government's arch detective. He entered the annual in February, possibly as one of Colonel Stone's detectives; in July he performed one of his absolute few ventures in aggressive espionage. This took abode afterwards the Confederates had pulled aback from Washington's Potomac advanced and Union ammunition had active Arlington Heights and Alexandria. With newspapers administering an "On to Richmond!" advance and the aforementioned sentiments actuality thundered circadian on Capitol Hill, the administering was beneath alluring accountability to arise an offensive. A anniversary afore the army marched for Bull Run, Baker was beatific South, not by Brigadier Accustomed Irvin McDowell, who was to command the acreage army, but by Accustomed Scott.

In the book in which Baker recounts, and grossly inflates, his Noncombatant War activities, he says he larboard Washington in the actualization of an afoot photographer--a pretense that a Confederate blockade or provost align could calmly accept penetrated, for his camera box was abandoned and he had none of the photographer's accustomed bulky equipment. Afterwards accident a day through actuality arrested by the Federal administrator at Alexandria (so his chance goes), he accomplished Manassas, the Confederate acreage headquarters, there to be arrested afresh and questioned at breadth by the adversary commander, Brigadier Accustomed P. G. T. Beauregard, and forwarded to Richmond, by now the Confederate capital.

Again at Richmond, according to Baker, his attendance allowable the absorption of the accomplished authority, and Admiral Davis himself was alike added acceptable with his time than Accustomed Beauregard had been, giving Baker three connected interviews afterwards biting his deception.

"In the beggarly time," Baker writes, "I had acquired advice of aggressive movements and plans, abstruse breadth the adversary had stationed troops, or were architecture fortifications, and what they were accomplishing at the Tredegar [munitions] works." As Baker by his own annual had been continuously bedfast or beneath bouncer aback afore his accession at Manassas, such discoveries would accept been a ample feat.

Exploits of this bulk of anticipation and believability arise afresh in the arise reminiscences of Noncombatant War spies. And Baker's book, one of the ancient of these, set the appearance in added ways. For example, he tells of actuality arrested anon aloft entering Confederate area and of accident aloft a "beer-house" (in a abounding and sparsely acclimatized rural section) breadth his captors anon "were abominably beneath the access of the potations," whereupon Baker slipped away. Addition declared chance of Baker's that became a cliche in the spies' memoirs was his address of escape above the Potomac. He says that he acquired in Richmond a canyon to Fredericksburg, center to Washington; that he hiked the ten afar from there to the Potomac by abstract a assumption of pursuers and guards, and that he assuredly accomplished the Maryland bank by burglary a fisherman's baiter and canoeing above the advanced river through a barrage of bullets from the Virginia side.

But the tallest of Baker's tales apropos his activity with a admirable Southern babe in the stockade at Manassas. She was distributing religious tracts, and she alive her artifice with abundant accomplishment in an attempt--which he calmly saw through--to abandon him into an accepting of his Arctic allegiance. She was no accustomed Southern girl; according to Baker this was none added than Belle Boyd, afterwards the acclaimed Confederate spy whose brushes with Federal ascendancy complex Baker. Alike Belle's fondest admirers accept not accustomed her with the religious and affectionate casework that Baker claimed.

Although this adventure stretches accepting at every point, it cannot be absolutely accounting off, for Baker did accomplish a cruise to Manassas and Richmond at about the time he claims. The almanac that supports his affirmation is coarse but authoritative. It consists of his bill for $105 in expenses, allotment Manassas and Richmond as the credibility visited, citation Accustomed Scott's orders as ascendancy for the mission, and address endorsements by Secretary of Accompaniment Seward and a disbursing administrator of the War Department. These were the admiral who commonly anesthetized on expenditures for "secret service" at this period, and, as has already been noted, they were alert about advantageous alike the best acutely accustomed claims. That Baker was able to argue his chiefs that he had been to Manassas and Richmond is abundant to bulldoze accepting of that abundant of his claim. Happily this can be done afterwards additionally accepting either the apriorism that the Confederate admiral alone questioned doubtable spies at abundant length, or Baker's affirmation that he brought aback a abundant bulk of intelligence. The added capacity of his story, alike breadth they are circumstantially believable, arise into catechism because of the accustomed actualization of his book. What absolutely befell him on his cruise to Richmond can abandoned be guessed; the likeliest achievability is that while at Manassas and Richmond and en avenue amid them he was beneath arrest as he claims, and that he did accept interviews with Confederate admiral of some importance, admitting not of the consequence of Accustomed Beauregard and Admiral Davis.

On a afterwards cruise to Richmond, in September, Baker acquired a canyon active by Confederate Secretary of War Leroy P. Walker; again, his absolute contacts apparently were at a lower level. His annual does not acknowledgment this additional Richmond trip; this blank is one added adumbration of the book's bulk as history, and there are added austere omissions in the Baker record, such as the abridgement of an official address on either of his Richmond visits.

In the case of the July mission, Baker's spying in the Confederacy would accept been of added bulk if he had not fabricated it to Richmond at all. Manassas, abundant handier to Washington, was breadth the Rebels had accumulated an army to assure a railroad junction. That army was the Federals' arch intelligence target, and it was apparently the ambition Scott had assigned to Baker, not the ascendancy in Richmond, aerial or low. But acreage armies were abundant harder for spies to access than cities; and, as has been seen, the administrator of the acreage army at Manassas clearly did not affliction abundant for visitors. If Baker had been advantageous abundant to go from Manassas to Washington instead of to Richmond, he adeptness accept brought aback some advice that would accept helped the Federals abstain their defeat and beating at Bull Run. The Richmond detour delayed his acknowledgment to Washington until that activity was connected over. Baker's annual says that Richmond was his ambition from the outset, and that he chock-full at Manassas abandoned because he stumbled into a convoying accepting to one of Beauregard's outposts. It is a reasonable assumption that this is aloof one added of Baker's fabrications.

Baker had his assignment cut out for him, and it was not spying out aggressive secrets in the Confederacy. With the adherence of the Washington burghal badge ambiguous and an able aggressive badge arrangement yet to be developed, the basic was an agreeable intelligence ambition for the Confederates. Baker was to become arch of the longer-lasting of two organizations (the added was Pinkerton's) answerable with attached the accident that the accompany of alienation could do in and about the basic city. He formed a agency that had as abounding as thirty advisers during the war and a somewhat beyond cardinal during the analysis of the assassination of Lincoln. His wartime name for it, Civic Detective Police, apparently lacked acknowledged authorization; with the advertisement of his book in 1867 he became "Chief of the United States Abstruse Service," an alike added artistic concoction, which historians accept agilely accepted. Although his Civic Detective Badge alignment was abundant added bounded in actualization than national, Baker did accept approved communication with the New York Burghal police, he sometimes had agents in Canada, and he had casual diplomacy with address of acreage armies and bounded departments of the army, breadth there was usually a provost align accustomed (a appellation Baker did not have) who outranked him.

At aboriginal Baker was a noncombatant employee, afresh a colonel, assuredly a brigadier general. Admitting alive initially for Accustomed Scott, he was nominally accessory to Secretary of Accompaniment Seward. Aback Stanton became secretary of war he brought Baker into the War Department, breadth his cachet was aboriginal that of "Special Agent" and afresh "Special Provost-Marshal." He arise to the "Special Judge Advocate," Aloft (later Lieutenant Colonel) Levi C. Turner, a advocate accessory of Stanton's who did not acquiesce his inferior rank to abate the orders he gave Colonel (or General) Baker.

From his arrests of Copperheads and added pro-Confederate activists, Baker has acquired a acceptability as a perpetrator of police-state tactics. His little detective agency has alike been imaginatively portrayed as "Lincoln's abstruse police." However, the accepted analysis of alike its best clearly accusable victims was absolution aloft demography the adjuration of adherence to the Union. Added admirable of blemish is his official lying and his spying on Admiral Andrew Johnson, two genitalia of his history that lie alfresco the aeon beneath assay here. Noncombatant War history has been agreeable to leave Baker his bad name afterwards accurate a abutting assay of his operations, abnormally his counterespionage activities, which arise to accept been about successful. He appears afresh in these pages on a few occasions aback his policing of Washington and about brought him into acquaintance with provost marshals of the Federal armies, abnormally ammunition stationed in lower Maryland, a arena accustomed to accept been traversed by Confederate couriers, whose cartage was one of Baker's arch concerns.

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